Fig. 1. Chromosomal map with notification
of gene sites, where mutative changes had taken place in benign or
malignant prostatic diseases
This enlargement of prostate gland is known as Benign
Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) which causes various urinary
problems depending on the stage of growth. If the enlargement involves
mainly the glandular tissues, then it is called the adenoma
prostates.
According to different sources, the BPH or adenoma
prostate is present approximately in case of 20 % of the men at the
age of 40 years, 70 % at the age of 60 and 90 % at the age of 80 years
and above [1, 19, 37, 38]. As the growth
is usually quite gradual, for the majority of men significant problems
may not be perceptible but nearly one third of men will have problems
for which they need to seek treatment. The early clinical problems
may range from mild to moderate symptoms: weak or sluggish urinary
stream, nycturia, increased urinary frequency, increased urinary urgency
and impotence.
As the disease progresses, the adenoma prostate causes
permanent changes in all parts of the urinary path; especially the
upper urinary paths and kidneys get worsen. The increasing mass of
the adenoma causes considerable elongation and compression of urethra
and may result into severe cystectasia due to back flux of urine from
urinary vessel into upper urinary paths, severe urination disorder
(frequent and difficult), chronic urinary tract infections, renal
insufficiency and acute dysuria which requires emergency catheterization
of the urinary vessel. In case of a fast growth of the disease an
urgent surgical interventions may be needed.
Among the prostate problems, BPH (adenoma
prostate) and Prostatic Intraepithelial Neoplasia (PIN) are believed
to be the most likely precursor of prostate cancer. PIN is
a proliferative lesion i.e. it is composed of prostatic epithelial
cells that are dividing more rapidly than normal epithelium. However,
the cells have not yet become cancerous [22,
23].
Moreover, it is possible to have both BPH and prostate
cancer at the same time.
Prostate Cancers
Prostate cancer is the most common cancer, excluding
skin cancers, in American men. The American Cancer Society (ACS) estimates
that during 2005 about 232,090 new cases of prostate cancer will be
diagnosed in the United States. A little over 1.8 million men in the
United States are survivors of prostate cancer. Prostate cancer is
the second leading cause of cancer death in American men, exceeded
only by lung cancer. The American Cancer Society estimates that 30,350
men in the United States will die of prostate cancer during 2005.
Prostate cancer accounts for about 10% of cancer-related deaths in
men [3]. One man in six will be diagnosed
with prostate cancer during his lifetime. As in case of BPH or Adenoma
Prostate the prostate cancers are also seen mostly after 40 years
of age. But, unlike BPH in prostate cancer basically the prostate
tissue is involved rather than the glandular structures. Because of
this, cancer may develop in a normal, enlarged or operated prostate.
Similarly, both cancer and adenoma may exist together in the same
prostate.
In early stages, prostate cancer is an insidious
disease, as it doesn't have specific symptoms. This is one of the
main reasons for late diagnosis - at those stages when the cancer
has invaded neighbouring tissues and organs (rectum, bladder base,
urethra) leading to urethral and rectal bleedings, severe urinating
disorders and so on. The distant metastases may cause a variety of
symptoms depending on the invaded organ: severe bone pain and pathologic
fractures, problems with blood cell production in advanced stages,
respiratory problems, bleedings, liver and renal insufficiency are
some of the lethal problems that may accompany advanced prostate cancer.
The conventional treatment options and their efficacies
In case of BHP or adenoma prostate
For earlier stages with minor or moderate symptoms:
starting from "watchful waiting" approach to medications
such as a-blockers and Finasteride, low
invasive physiotherapy and surgical manipulations are available for
treatments.
Watchful waiting involves periodic examinations
- about once a year to see if the symptoms are progressing or not.
This enables the doctors to decide with medicinal or surgical interventions
on time.
The most successfully used medicines are hormone
therapy - Finasteride (Proscar™) [16,
26, 27, 41]. In about fifty percent of men, the prostate will
start to shrink, although this will take at least 6 months, while
treatment usually lasts a few years, sometimes forever. The diminished
prostate size results into improvement or complete disappearance of
urinary problems.
Among a-blockers:
Prazosin (Minipres™), Doxazosin (Cardura™), Terazosin
(Hytrin™), Tamulosin (Flowmax™/Omnic™), Alfuzocin
(Xatral™) are in use [25].
Although in most of the patients with BPH these
medicines may improve the urinary flow, they do not stop the prostate
growth. The other fact is that they need to be taken continuously
to achieve necessary therapeutic effects and thus the side effects
like dizziness, slight low blood pressure, erection problems are often
seen.
Thermotherapy and laser therapy are
the two most effective physiotherapies used in the treatments of BHP
or adenoma prostate. Transurethral microwave thermotherapy (TUMT)
uses special machines (Prostatron™, Targis™, Prostalund™)
with catheter to deliver microwave energy (high temperatures) within
the prostate which can destroy prostate cells locally, resulting into
regression of the prostate size and improving urinary flow [24,
25, 28, 35, 36].
High-energy light beams-lasers can be applied
as variety of low invasive surgical manipulations. Like thermotherapy,
the high temperature induced by a laser beam vaporizes tissue masses.
To localize the laser beam specifically to the prostate, modified
cystoscope or transrectal ultrasound are used. The leading techniques
for this therapy are: Visual Laser Ablation of the Prostate (VLAP)
[30, 31]; Contact Laser, Interstitial
Laser Coagulation; TransUrethral Laser-Induced Prostatectomy (TULIP)
[32, 36]; holmium: YAG laser resection
of the prostate (HoLRP) [34].
Laser prostatectomy is a less invasive alternative to transurethral
resection of the prostate (TURP) and show promising successes
in correcting BPH symptoms; but again due to involvements of high
techniques, costs (for example - 10,000-12,000 USD for a single course
of VLAP or TULIP are not unusual) and side effects like bladder irritation
or permanent retrograde ejaculations, their use for common people
are rather limited.
The surgical treatments are applied to release severe
symptoms in late stages. Transurethral resection of the prostate
(TURP) is the most successful and common treatment for BPH
and thus is considered as “the gold standard” among these
treatment options. The operation is done without external incision
with the help of a special instrument called resectoscope and lasts
for about 90 minutes. When the prostate is only slightly enlarged,
a modified version so called transurethral incision of the
prostate (TUIP) may be a better option. TUIP has less
risk of complications (retrograde ejaculation, impotence, incontinence,
bleeding) than TURP [25, 33, 36, 39, 40].
Another recent advancement is the use of prostatic
stents. These are titanium/gold-like springs that are placed
under direct vision through the penis into the prostate to hold the
prostate apart and relieve the urinating problems. Main advantages:
easy and quick method with relatively good effects. Drawbacks:
displacements of the stent position, frequent irritative voiding
symptoms following the procedure [25, 36].
When the prostate had grown to bigger sizes -
Open Prostatectomy is performed. The overall result in terms of
improvement of symptoms is much better and long lasting in comparison
with other treatments, though it has higher obvious surgical risks.
The remarkable drawbacks from these surgical treatments, beside the
usual surgical risks, are retrograde ejaculation (resulting into a
failure to father children) and possibilities of the disease and symptoms
to come back over times.
In case of prostate cancers
The range of treatment options that are practiced
today in prostate cancers, like in other types of cancers, involve
from non-invasive methods - Watchful waiting, hormone therapy,
chemotherapy, cryotherapy, radiotherapy to most radical operations.
Treatment of prostate cancer needs to be individualized.
Decisions regarding treatment options are often based on the clinical
stage and grade, gleason score [43,
44, 45] rate of prostate specific antigen (PSA) [42,
47, 48, 49, 51] rise as well as the patient's current clinical
status – age, life expectancy, presence or absence of other
concurrent significant medical problems and so on. The Partin coefficient
tables – a combine data on the PSA value, the Gleason score,
and the clinical stage was elaborated by a group of urologists at
the Brady Institute for Urology at Johns Hopkins University (revised
in May 1997). It can be used to predict pathological stage of localized
prostate cancer which is very important in deciding how to treat a
patient further.
Watchful waiting can be appropriate for patients
whose cancer has been detected at a very early stage in whom the amount
of cancer cells (size) is very small (as measured by PSA test and
biopsy) and when the cancer is not highly aggressive (gleason score
6 or less). The main advantages of watchful waiting are avoidance
of severe side effects of surgery, radiation, or hormonal treatments
and avoidance of treatment-associated expenses. On the other hand
patient carry an obvious risk of the cancer being developed beyond
control before the doctor see the necessity to recommend any treatment
interventions. The PIVOT (Prostatic Intervention versus Observation
Trial) is still in progress and data will not be available for many
years [53, 54, 55].
Hormonal therapy (androgen ablation therapy)
though usually reserved for advanced prostate cancer, can be combined
with the primary treatment plan (post-prostatectomy or with radiation
therapy) as a supplementary therapy, especially where there is high
risk of recurrences. In certain cases, for example where the cancer
is more aggressive and surgery or radiation is not possible, it is
used as a major therapy.
The efficiency of certain hormone therapy plus chemotherapy
in treating prostate cancers is still under clinical studies [56,
58].
Chemotherapy is mostly only in case of hormone-refractory
prostate cancer. The administration of Mitaxantrone plus prednisone,
Estramustine (Emcyt) have showed more success than others in this
case, although usual side effects - hair loss, leukopenia, anemia
and nausea are common.
Cryotherapy (freeze therapy) or Cryosurgery
[46] is one of the novel and the few potentially curative treatment
approaches, which is being used in modern clinics today to treat initial
or recurrent prostate cancers; basically after radiation therapy or
seeds. It may be offered as an alternative to Brachytherapy (seeds),
in patients who have urinary obstructive symptoms, as it helps to
open the urinary channel over time. Long-term results are not yet
available and the side effects like impotence and incontinence constrain
its use within prescribed limits [46, 64,
65, 66].
Radiation therapy is the second major options
to treat prostate cancer after surgery. Several different forms of
radiation therapy: external beam, Conformal external-beam therapy,
intensity-modulated radiotherapy, brachytherapy or radioactive seed
implantation, together with several forms of combined therapy
have been elaborated for the treatments of different stages of prostate
cancers [55, 67, 65]. It being less
invasive than surgery may stand as the first choice of treatments
for those patients whom the surgery is of too big risk - for example
older, or patient with other serious concurrent health problems. Now
the highly precise and modulated new techniques for conformal dosed
radiotherapy being available, this therapy is more and more used effectively
even in younger patients.
However, radiotherapy far does not meet the demand
of the current prostate cancer problems. For example, in high Gleason
grade (8, 9 and 10) cancers, radiation therapy has poorer long-term
results than surgical therapy. Radiotherapy is a locally targeted
- treatment and thus, in case of metastatic prostates its value as
a conventional therapy drastically falls. The more virtuous use of
radiotherapy is as a palliative method in bone metastases to control
local pain associated with skeletal prostate metastasis.
The other moment is, how much the radial beam may
cannot be conformable and modulated, its impact on the neighboring
tissues, organs and at last in the overall organism can be only minimized
but can not be avoided completely. And thus the long-term harsh adverse
effects - immune suppressing effects, leucopoenia, anemia, nausea
has made it a limited and little dubious method for many prostate
cancer patients.
As in other cancer cases, the best long-term cures
are seen after surgical treatment for prostate cancer - radical
prostatectomy. In terms of clinico-functional outcomes, there
are two types of radical prostatectomy: nerve-sparing and non nerve-sparing.
In general, the surgical methods are best approved in relatively younger
patients with aggressive (stage T2 or Gleason score 7) & clinically
localized prostate cancer. Moreover, the recent new techniques, modifications
in prostate surgery such as seminal vesicle sparing or laparoscopic
techniques have not only minimized the surgical complications (hazards
of anesthesia, risk of blood loss, surgical intra- and post- operative
mortality rates) and period of hospital stay but also have significantly
improved the long-term cancer survival rate. Surgery is uncommonly
done for patients age 70 and over, as the overall benefits do not
outweigh the amount of risks involved. The disadvantages may include
impotence, the inability to get or sustain an erection. Other postoperative
problems may include incontinence, the inability to control urine
after the surgery (may be temporary or permanent), loss of ejaculation
and fertility etc. The surgical treatments for metastatic and androgen-independent
PC are limited and rather unsatisfactory [28,
44, 50, 54].
The novel global approaches in prostate problems
The limited successes of the conventional methods
of prostate treatments described above which have been practiced over
many years on one hand, and the ever-growing global prostate cancer
problems on the other hand, have urged the modern medicine to look
for other alternatives which have more effective and etiological approaches
to solve the existing prostate problems.
Angiostatic Approach to Cancer Therapy that chokes off the blood
supply to prostate tumors is showing promising results.
Immunotherapy based on the molecular biology
of Genetics and immunology is novel treatment option especially for
advanced prostate cancers. During last decade hundreds of immunotherapeutic
drugs and vaccines have been launched in different stages of clinical
trials providing new hopes in the cancer world [10,
16].
And fortunately, 'the vast significance of the immunological
aspects in the genesis and treatment of the malignant tumors including
prostate cancers' is no more a subject of discussion as used to be
few years ago.
The tumor-targeted immunological approaches can
be divided into cytokine-based therapies, tumor-associated antigen-based
therapies, tumor vaccines, and dendritic cell-based
therapies.
Over a hundred drugs and vaccines for treating prostate
cancer are currently in clinical trials - for example; or the cancer
specific vaccines (like antitumor
vaccine RESAN) that rev up the immune system to attack prostate
tumors.
How can immunotherapy solve the global prostate problems?
Today it is absolutely clear that cancers are
developed in those particular people who have weak general immune
responses; and thus only the proper immunotherapy can re-establish
this immunological reactivity in them to fight adequately against
the cancer. The most important part in defeating cancer is a well
working immune system...
The important components of an effective immune response
have been elucidated in recent years. An understanding of the dysfunction
of the immune response in cancer in one or more of these components
has led to a variety of immunotherapeutic approaches. These therapeutic
strategies are designed to stimulate dendritic cell proliferation,
promote antigen uptake and processing, stimulate an effector cell
response via direct antigen presentation, or target tumor cells via
antibody therapy. Many approaches in prostate cancer have demonstrated
successful induction of the desired immune response.
Among the hundreds of demonstrative scientific research
works towards this field, here are some of the most authentic evidences.
Particularly the prostate, represents a unique site
for immunotherapy because prostate-specific immunity can be generated
without much efforts. Antibodies and cell-mediated immunity, induced
by either active or passive immunization, represent potential means
to target specifically prostate tumor cells [21].
Although local prostate cancer (PC) can be cured
in most cases by radical prostatectomy, therapies for metastatic and
androgen-independent PC are limited and rather unsatisfactory. In
the field of passive immunotherapy, chimeric/recombinant antibodies
and derivatives thereof show promising results in early clinical trials
(phase I/II) [16].
Prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA)
is a potential target in prostate cancer patients because it is very
highly expressed and has been reported to be up regulated by androgen
deprivation [17, 29].
PSA vaccine constructs are immunogenic and induce
antibody responses to a multitude of surface antigens on prostate
tumor cell lines by epitope or determinant spreading after stimulation
of the immune system by PSA immunization [21,
29].
The immunological data were more encouraging, with
several patients from each arm of the trial having an increase in
cytokine production, increases in specific antibodies and evidence
of T-cell proliferation in response to the vaccinations and suggests
that further exploration of immunotherapy in less advanced disease
may yield more encouraging clinical responses
[20].
Many tumor-associated antigens represent tissue differentiation
antigens that are poorly immunogenic. Their weak immunogenicity may
be due to immune tolerance to self-antigen. Several research outcomes
have demonstrated that xenoantigen immunization can break tolerance
to a self-antigen in humans, resulting in a clinically significant
antitumor effect [18].
The major interferences in the prostate cancer vaccines development
The major obstacles in the R&D of prostate cancer
vaccines are:
generation of inadequate immune responses by the
tumor-associated antigens, presence of vast number of prostate specific
antigen epitopes (heterogenecity), involvement of several biochemical
mechanisms in the generation of immune answers, absence of effective
and reliable monitoring systems for the assessment of cancer vaccine
efficacy as well as the incomprehensible world cancer vaccine development
regulatory system (concerning the present urgency in finding the solution
of prostate problems) and the huge financial barriers.
To know more about the current problems in the immunotherapy
click here.
How can RESAN vaccine solve your prostate problems?
The antitumor vaccine RESAN beside the glycoprotein
analogous to 22 peptide fragments of the telomerase ferment (hTRT),
contains more than 40 different tumor specific antigen fragments (epitopes)
(imitators) including imitators of certain prostate antigen
epitopes (click
here to see the full list of tumor antigens whose certain epitopes
are imitated by RESAN vaccine).
Below in Fig.2 and Fig.3
are shown the amino acid sequence of two antigens of prostate cancer
(the antigen fragments (epitopes) which are imitated by the vaccine
RESAN are in bold-letters and underlined). Fig
4. is illustrated spatial PSA antigen structure.
Fig. 2. PROSTATE-SPECIFIC MEMBRANE ANTIGEN (PSMA).
HUMAN
mwnllhetdsavatarrprwlcagalvlaggffllgflfgwfikssneatn
itpkhnmkafldelkaenikkflhnftqiphlagteqnfqlakqiqsqwke
fgldsvelahydvllsypnkthpnyisiinedgneifntslfeppppgyen
vsdivppfsafspqgmpegdlvyvnyartedffklerdmkincsgkiviar
ygkvfrgnkvknaqlagakgvilysdpadyfapgvksypdgwnlpgggvqr
gnilnlngagdpltpgypaneyayrrgiaeavglpsipvhpigyydaqkll
ekmggsappdsswrgslkvpynvgpgftgnfstqkvkmhihstnevtriyn
vigtlrgavepdryvilgghrdswvfggidpqsgaavvheivrsfgtlkke
gwrprrtilfaswdaeefgllgstewaeensrllqergvayinadssiegn
ytlrvdctplmyslvhnltkelkspdegfegkslyeswtkkspspefsgmp
risklgsgndfevffqrlgiasgrarytknwetnkfsgyplyhsvyetyel
vekfydpmfkyhltvaqvrggmvfelansivlpfdcrdyavvlrkyadkiy
sismkhpqemktysvsfdslfsavknfteiaskfserlqdfdksnpivlrm
mndqlmflerafidplglpdrpfyrhviyapsshnkyagesfpgiydalfd
ieskvdpskawgevkrqiyvaaftvqaaaetlseva
Fig. 3. PROSTATE SPECIFIC ANTIGEN PRECURSOR
(PSA). HUMAN
mwvpvvfltlsvtwigaaplilsrivggwecekhsqpwqvlvasrgravcggv
lvhpqwvltaahcirnksvillgrhslfhpedtgqvfqvshsfphplydmsll
knrflrpgddsshdlmllrlsepaeltdavkvmdlptqepalgttcyasgwgs
iepeefltpkklqcvdlhvisndvcaqvhpqkvtkfmlcagrwtggkstcsgd
sggplvcngvlqgitswgsepcalperpslytkvvhyrkwikdtivanp
Fig
4. PSA antigen structure. The yellow parts are the antigen fragments
(epitopes) which are imitated by RESAN vaccine
In such unique combination of multiple tumor antigen
epitope imitators, RESAN can trigger vigorous antitumor response against
prostate tumors. Moreover, its glyco-structures play an important
role in the augmentation of this immune response. This is the exact
type of cancer vaccine the scientists of the world have been exploring
over last decade. The vaccine is effective in treatment of BPH
and in prostate cancer. When it is used rationally (click
here to see the most rational use of RESAN) the results are very
promising. In case of BPH or adenoma prostates, the elaborated immunotherapy
can be used solely. Here a considerable regression in prostate size,
normalization of PSA levels and tremendous improvements in clinical
symptoms are observed within 4-6 weeks after the vaccination.
In case of prostate cancer, the better results are
expected particularly when it is combined with surgical treatments
- check or regress metastatic growths, destroy micrometastases and
prevent relapses resulting a long- term remission. The results can
be monitored tracing the decreasing levels of tumor markers (PSA levels),
incresing levels of cytokines or shrinking tumor sizes in CT and ultrasound
examinations.
In those cases when operations are impossible or
of too big risks, RESAN can be an alternative treatment as an non
invasive, non toxic and non destructive methods which works simply
by improving patients self immune system sufficiently to release the
clinical problems.
As mentioned above, prostate cancer may be developed
on a background of BPH (adenoma prostate) and Prostatic Intraepithelial
Neoplasia (PIN). Moreover, the adenoma prostate may disguise the
initial period of the prostate cancer. In these cases the level of
PSA may vary from 4 to10 ngm/mls. When the level of PSA is higher
than 10 ngm/mls the diagnosis of the prostate cancer does not arouse
much doubt. It is mainly when the level of PSA is in between 4 and
10 ngm/mls, many difficulties arise to make a right decision: whether
it is an adenoma or the initial stage of prostate cancer (or progression
of the diseases after radical treatments). On the other hand,
namely when the level of PSA is in between 4 and 10 ngm/mls, the use
of the vaccine is most effective to control/prevent the development
of prostate cancer (Vaccination
for the Prevention of Cancers), resulting into a complete normalization
of PSA level (in 90 % of the patients) within 1-2 months after the
introduction of the vaccine.
Because it possess no serious side effects and is
practically safe for all stage tumor patients, RESAN can bring many
benefits even in advanced cancer patients, patients in whom the traditional
methods happen to be ineffective and in the patients who experience
relapses after these treatments (A
New Approach in the Treatment of Advanced Cancers).
Fig.
5. The decrease in the PSA level after the vaccination
The Patient candidates for 'Watchful waiting'
approach would also benefit from vaccine RESAN. For them, it can
even be the first choice of treatment for it being a safe-treatment
with real potential to result into an absolute cure.
Below, it is demonstrated the PSA level changes
observed after vaccination by RESAN in the patients with prostate
problems (based on clinical assessment of patients with prostate
problems).
The overall efficacy of RESAN immunotherapy in BPH
The histological research studies of an adenoma have
proved that it consists of
glandular derivations, covered by a cylindrical epithelium; cystic
cavities and fibres of a connective and muscle tissue. Depending on
predominance of tissue type, 4 forms of BPH have been distinguished,
on which depends the efficiency of an immunotherapy by RESAN vaccine.
1. Glandular (adenoma) - immunotherapy is effective
approximately in 80-85 % of cases.
2. Fibrotic (fibroadenoma) - the immunotherapy is
effective approximately in 80-85 % of cases.
3. Myomatous (adenomyoma) - the immunotherapy is
effective approximately in 50-60 % of cases.
4. The mixed form of a neoplasm - immunotherapy is
effective approximately in 60-85 of % of cases.
Note: The most common cases are the first two forms.
Conclusion:
The traditional conventional methods of treatment
- particularly the radiotherapy, chemotherapy, hormonal therapy and
the surgery have shown limited successes in solving the prostate problems.
Besides, they possess unavoidable side effects which may do more harm
to patients than help, especially to weak patients (practically
as a rule, all cancer patients have weak immunological and clinical
status).
The most successful treatment choice-surgery
choice - surgery may cause unpleasant adverse effects. Because radical
prostatectomy can result in severing nerves and blood vessels related
to sexual or bladder function, it has high potential to make patients
impotent, incontinent, or both.
Although local prostate cancers can be cured
in most cases by radical prostatectomy, therapies for metastatic and
androgen-independent PC are limited and rather unsatisfactory.
The second conventional prostate treatment method
- radiation therapy is a treatment option that may be less traumatic
than radical prostatectomy and appears to have similar results when
used in early-stage patients. Radiation therapy also has adverse effects,
including impotence in up to 40 to 50 percent of patients which make
it a very limiting-use.
So, the prostate problems particularly prostate
cancer remains a difficult clinical problem regardless of intensive
scientific research works and billions of dollars spent every year
in the research and development of novel therapy strategies for their
effective control and treatment.
In past decade, immunology has demonstrated in the
scientific world its huge potentials and competence for solving the
cancer problems. And in particular, the immunologic approach of solving
the tumor problems has proceeded most revolutionary in prostate direction;
achieving many encouraging results. Though there are still many unsolved
questions in cancer immunology, the time has come to make it available
for public use; the amount of proofs that had been illustrating its
range of effectiveness, safety ness and urgency already out way all
the counter arguments.
RESAN vaccine is one of those successful modern immunologic
research work outcomes, which possesses immense anticancer activities,
particularly against prostate tumors. According to the SRE
RESAN company's scientific and clinical research works outcomes
- it is, without doubt, one of the most wide ranged and strongest
novel cancer vaccine so far that can be used as a target for antigen-specific
immunotherapy.
Unlike most of the other cancer types, prostate
cancers grow quite slowly and it requires lifelong follow-up! Unfortunately,
prostate cancer can recur many years after apparently successful treatment.
This is why vaccines like RESAN together with the 'Routine screening
system for prostate cancer' could play unique role in prophylaxis
and treatments of prostate cancers to achieve a full control over
the world prostate problems.
[
Home
page ][
Contact
us ][
Site
map ]
References
1. Prostate
Cancer. No One Answer for Testing or Treatment.
John Henkel. FDA/Office of Public Affairs. Online.
2. MedNews
Screening for prostate cancer. Digital Rectal Examination and Prostate
Specific Antigen.
NCI. Online.
3. What
Are The Key Statistics About Prostate.
2005© American Cancer Society,
Inc.
4. Natural anti-Gal antibody as
a universal augmenter of autologous tumor vaccine immunogenicity.
Immunology Today. vol.18, No. 6, june 1997, pp. 281-285.
Uri Galili and Denise C. LaTempl.
5. Tumor antigens recognized by
T cells.
Immunology Today. vol.18, No. 6, june 1997, pp. 267-268.
Thierry Boon, Pierre G. Coulie and Benoit Van den eyde.
6. Gene
therapy of prostate cancer: current and future directions.
Endocr Relat Cancer 2002 Jun;9(2):115-39.
Mabjeesh NJ, Zhong H, Simons JW. Winship Cancer Institute, Department
of Hematology and Oncology, Emory University School of Medicine, 1365
Clifton Road, Suite B4100, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA.
7. PATE,
a gene expressed in prostate cancer, normal prostate, and testis,
identified by a functional genomic approach.
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002 Mar 5;99(5):3058-63.
Bera TK, Maitra R, Iavarone C, Salvatore G, Kumar V, Vincent JJ, Sathyanarayana
BK, Duray P, Lee BK, Pastan I. Laboratory of Molecular Biology and
Laboratory of Pathology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer
Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
8. Heterogeneous
expression of MAGE-A genes in occult disseminated tumor cells: a novel
multimarker reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction for diagnosis
of micrometastatic disease.
Cancer Res 2002 Jan 1;62(1):251-61.
Kufer P, Zippelius A, Lutterbuse R, Mecklenburg I, Enzmann T, Montag
A, Weckermann D, Passlick B, Prang N, Reichardt P, Dugas M, Kollermann
MW, Pantel K, Riethmuller G. Institute of Immunology, University of
Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany.
9. Analysis
of endogenous peptides bound by soluble MHC class I molecules: a novel
approach for identifying tumor-specific antigens.
Eur J Immunol 2002 Jan;32(1):213-22.
Barnea E, Beer I, Patoka R, Ziv T, Kessler O, Tzehoval E, Eisenbach
L, Zavazava N, Admon A.The Smoler Protein Center, Department of Biology,
Technion, Haifa, Israel.
10. The
latest research on gene therapy for prostate cancer. Online.
11. TAP off-Tumors on. Immunology
Today.
vol.18, No. 6, june 1997, pp.292- 298.
Immunology Today. Barbara Seliger, Marcus J. Maeurer and Soldano Ferrone.
12. Prostate
specific antigen inhibits immune responses in vitro: a potential role
in prostate cancer.
J Urol 2002 Aug;168(2):741-7.
Kennedy-Smith AG, McKenzie JL, Owen MC, Davidson PJ, Vuckovic S, Hart
DN. Urology Department and Haematology Research Group, Christchurch
Hospital and Molecular Pathology, Canterbury Health Laboratories,
Christchurch, New Zealand.
13. Prostate
stem cell antigen: Identification of immunogenic peptides and assessment
of reactive CD8+T cells in prostate cancer patients.
Int J Cancer 2002 Dec 1;102(4):390-7.
Kiessling A, Schmitz M, Stevanovic S, Weigle B, Holig K, Fussel M,
Fussel S, Meye A, Wirth MP, Rieber EP. Institute of Immunology, Medical
Faculty, Technical University of Dresden, Dresden, Germany.
14. Role
of prostate stem cell antigen in prostate cancer research.
Curr Opin Urol 2002 Sep;12(5):401-6.
Jalkut MW, Reiter RE. Department of Urology, University of California
- Los Angeles School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, USA.
15. Immunotherapy
for prostate cancer.
Rini BI, Small EJ.University of California at San Francisco Comprehensive
Cancer Center, 1600 Divisidero Street, 3rd floor, San Francisco, CA
94115, USA.
16. Proscar
Online.
17. A unique folate hydrolase,
prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA): a target for immunotherapy?
Tasch J, Gong M, Sadelain M, Heston WD.Department of Urology, Memorial
Hospital, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10021,
USA.
18. Dendritic
cell-based xenoantigen vaccination for prostate cancer immunotherapy.
Fong L, Brockstedt D, Benike C,
Breen JK, Strang G, Ruegg CL, Engleman EG. Department of Pathology,
Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA.
19. Screening
for prostate cancer. Online.
20. Allogeneic whole-cell vaccine:
a phase I/II study in men with hormone-refractory prostate cancer.
Eaton JD, Perry MJ, Nicholson S, Guckian M, Russell N, Whelan M, Kirby
RS. Division of Oncology, St George's Hospital Medical School, London,
UK.
21. Evidence
of determinant spreading in the antibody responses to prostate cell
surface antigens in patients immunized with prostate-specific antigen.
Clin Cancer Res 2002 Feb;8(2):368-73.
Cavacini LA, Duval M, Eder JP, Posner MR. Beth Israel Deaconess Medical
Center, 21-27 Burlington Avenue, Room 556, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
22. Prostatic
Intraepithelial Neoplasia.
David G. Bostwick, MD, MBA, FCAP. Dharam ramani, MD, ECAP. 2001 Bostwick
Laboratories. Online.
23. Prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia
is a risk factor for adenocarcinoma. Predictive accuracy in needle
biopsies.
Journal of Urology 1995; 154:1295-99.
Davidson D, Bostwick DG, Qian J, et al.
24. TransUrethral
Microwave Thermotherapy Using the Prostatron™.
A. Non-Surgical Breakthrough in BPH Treatment. Kankakee Urological
Associates, LTD * Riverside Medical Center. Online.
25. UROlog,
BPH treatment.
Based on information from various
sources. Online.
26. Effectiveness
of Proscar in Treating Enlarged Prostates.
Susan A. Steeves. University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center
25-Feb-98.
27. PROSCAR®
(Finasteride).
Tablets Patient Information about PROSCAR ® (Prahs-car). Online.
28. How Is Prostate Cancer
Treated? Americal foundation for Urologic Disease. Online.
29. The latest research on immune
therapy for prostate cancer.
Prostate Cancer Information Centre. infoaging.org Online.
30. Laser ablation of the prostate
in patients with benign prostatic hypertrophy.
Costello AJ, Bowsher WG, Bolton DM, Braslis KG, Burt J. Br J U 1992;
69:603-8.
31. VISUAL
LASER ABLATION OF THE PROSTATE (VLAP) WITH BARE FIBER IN CONJUNCTION
WITH LASER BLADDER NECK INCISION IN THE TREATMENT OF PATIENTS WITH
BENIGN PROSTATIC HYPERPLASIA (BPH).
Ann Saudi Med 1997; 17(2):191-194.
Hasan M. A. Farsi, FACS, FRCS(C); Hisham A. Mosli, FACS, FRCS(C);
Mohammed F. Alzemaity, FACS, FRCS(C); Ahmed Bahnasy, MD, PhD.
32. Laser
Prostatectomy for Benign Prostatic Hypertrophy.
The Regence Group, Medical Policy. Revised/Effective Date: 01/08/2002.
Online.
33. TUIP
(transurethrale Inzision der Prostata) f?r BPH (benigne Prostatahyperplasie
.
Prostatitis. neu in 2001. Online.
34. Holmium:YAG
Laser Resection of the Prostate Versus Visual LaserAblation of the
Prostate and Transurethral Ultrasound-Guided Laser Induced Prostatectomy.
A Retrospective Comparative Study.
Journal of Endourology, Vol.5, Number 2, 152-156, Mar 1998.
Kitagawa M, Furuse H, Fukuta K, Aso Y.
35. Minimally
Invasive BPH Treatments , Laser Surgery BPH Treatment, Transurethral
Microwave Thermotherapy (TUMT), Transurethral Needle Ablation (TUNA®).
©Ethicon Endo-Surgery, Inc. 2001, 2002. Online.
36. CORNELL
Physicians, BPH, Surgical Treatments , Surgery; TURP and TUIP,
Minimally Invasive Procedures: Laser prostatectomy, Transurethral
thermotherapy, Transurethral needle ablation (TUNA), Prostatic stents,
Transurethral electrovaporization. Online.
37. Benign
prostatic hyperplasia.
Victoria Kennedy, RN, A.D.A.M. editorial (11/14/2001). Department
of Urology, New York-Presbyterian Hospital Columbia Campus, New York,
NY. Online.
38. Prostate
Cancer UK, BHP (Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia). Online.
39. Prostate
Cancer UK, Transurethral Resection of the Prostate (TURP). Online.
40. Transurethral
prostatectomy for benign prostatic hyperplasia. Online.
41. Proscar
for the Treatment of Prostate Cancer?
Mark Scholz M.D. Stephen Strum M.D. June, 1995. Prosate cancer Research
Institute. Online.
42. Prostate
Cancer UK, Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA). Online.
43. Gleason
Grade. Online.
44.Salvage
radical prostatectomy for radiorecurrent prostate cancer: morbidity
revisited.
Vaidya A, Soloway MS. J Urol 2000;164:1998-2001. Online.
45. Understanding
Gleason Grading, Prostate Cancer UK. Online.
46. Cryotherapy.
Drs. Werner, Murdock & Francis; P.A. Greenbelt - Laurel - Bowie,
Maryland. Online - UROLOGY ASSOCIATES.
47. PSA
(prostate specific antigen). Online.
48. Prostate
Specific Antigen - Cancer information on MedicineNet.com Online.
49. PSA
RapidScreen Test.
CRAIG MEDICAL DISTRIBUTION INC. Online.
50. Doctor's Guide Publishing
Limited. Radical prostatectomy often results in impotence and urinary
incontinence. Online.
51. Patient Information PSA (prostate-specific
antigen) Screening for Prostate Cancer.
Journal of Family Practice 1993;37(5):435-6.
Hahn and Roberts.
52. Partin
Tables. Online.
53. MARIN UROLOGY. Vernon E. Weldon,
M.D., Harry Neuwirth, M.D., Patrick M. Bennett, M.D. Watchful
Waiting. Online.
54. Family Practice Notebook,
Radical Prostatectomy by Scott Moses, MD, last revised 9/29/2002.
Online.
55. Treatment
of Prostate Cancer: Radioactive Seed Implantation , (Brachytherapy).
Duke K. Bahn, M.D. Department of Radiology, Crittenton Hospital, Rochester,
MI (248) 652-5611.
56. Hormone
Therapy Plus Chemotherapy in Treating Patients With Prostate Cancer.
ClinicalTrials.gov processed the record on 2002-12-08. Online.
57. Chemotherapy
for Prostate Cancer.
UPMC cancer centres. Online.
58. Prostate
Cancer Hormone Therapy. Online.
59. PROSTATE
CANCER Treatment:
Advanced Systemic Disease.
U-M Comprehensive Cancer Center. Online.
60. Chemotherapy Combination Promising
for Advanced Prostate Cancer. Taxotere
and Emcyt Phase II Report.
New York, May 7, 2001 (PSA Rising).
61. Taxotere®/Estramustine/Prednisone:
New Standard of Care for Hormone-Refractory Prostate Cancer?
© CancerConsultants.com
62. CHEMOTHERAPY.
Drs. E. David Crawford, Aubrey Pilgrim, Stephen Strum, Israel Barken,
Bob Leibowitz and Contributions from Several Survivors.
63. Brachytherapy
for Prostate Cancer - Recovery Complications, Medicines and Heart
Concerns.
© Thomas P. Doherty, December 22, 2000.
64. Prostate
Cancer: Cryotherapy. Online.
65. Prostate
Radioactive Seed Implantation. The Newest Alternative for Treating
Early Prostate Cancer.
Radiation Medical Group, Inc. Online.
66. Cryosurgery in the Treatment
of Prostate Cancer.
Duke K. Bahn, M.D. Department of Radiology, Crittenton Hospital, Rochester,
MI (248) 652-5611.
; ){kind=link}